1. With the increasing rate of species extinction over the last several billion years, a closer examination of the multiple threats to biodiversity are required. Although this module looked at various threats to biodiversity, including growth of human populations, consumption levels, and mobility, it is important to note that the negative consequences stemming from human actions are normally unintentional. For the most part, the negative impacts are correlated with the human desire for an “increased quality of life”. After reading this module, choose two different threats to biodiversity that were discussed and provide a brief summary. In addition, provide outside research from at least one credible source for each.

1. Invasive Species

An invasive species can be extremely hazardous as they eventually serve as a threat to the formerly established biodiversity in a particular area. The species that previously occupied an area are impacted by the introduction of a non-native animal, plant, or microbe. Such an invasive species usually does not go unnoticed. Often they introduce parasites to the native species, as well as prey upon them. In addition, an invasive species may hybridize with the native species, which leads to several complications leading to hybrid zones and reproductive barriers. Invasive species increase the competition for food as there are more individuals taking up a single area. Finally, an invasive species can introduce diseases leading to the modification and disruption of a habitat. In a February 2016 article, Stephen Carpenter described the ways in which invasive species represent a “largely unquantified threat to ecosystem services” (1). The impact of an invasive species is also evident in monetary terms. Carpenter has quantified that the degradation of an important ecosystem service, water clarity, caused by invasion of a water fly has led to some astounding costs. He found that the costs of restoring the service would be between 86.5-163 million dollars (1). The cost of restoring a habitat after it has been overwhelmed by an invasive species increases with an increasing environment as well.

1. Pollution

Pollution is a term that is often used as a “catchall” label; however, there are concrete examples of the ways in which pollution serves as a threat to biodiversity. For example, the release of toxic synthetic chemicals and heavy metals into the environment has negative impacts on the resilience of a species. More often than not, such pollution harms the species and they end up on the endangered species list, or worse, extinction altogether. A common misconception is that a “natural” substance will not pollute an environment. However, even a natural substance will threaten the biodiversity in an area when it becomes increasingly abundant. A common example of this compromise is evident through the use of nitrogen and phosphorus for plant growth. These chemicals, when used in moderation, are harmless, but eventually they lead to pollution when used as fertilizers. Fertilizers can run off into water systems and lead to a “dead zone”. Carbon dioxide is another example of a “natural” substance that damages the atmosphere when released in abundant amounts by human activities and greenhouse gases. Bioaccumulation is another cause for concern when speaking about pollution because eventually, it threatens biodiversity. Bioaccumulation includes the process by which chemicals become increasingly concentrated in animal tissues as they move up the food chain. A recent study regarding the spread of bioaccumulation illustrated that concentrations of eleven elements were found in five marine species from different trophic levels of the food web. These trophic levels include algae, mussels, shrimp, and fish (2). The trophic levels listed are representative of species found in shallow coastal waters as well as species that serve an important role in the commercial food industry (2). So, just as bioaccumulation results due to increasing concentration in the food web, the impact of bioaccumulation on humans and their environment also increases as more and more species become affected by it.

2. A hazard is an extreme event that has a harmful impact on humans. Therefore, a human extinction hazard is an event leading to the extinction of humans. In this module, various human extinction hazards were discussed. Choose one human extinction hazard from the module and provide a brief summary. In addition, provide outside research from at least one credible source.

Nuclear Warfare

Nuclear warfare is an example of a human extinction hazard as it is a type of arms race, which includes a positive feedback loop. An example of the human extinction hazard stemming from nuclear warfare is the Cold War. The Cold War involved an arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union, which lead to worldwide destruction. Although the Cold War is an event of the past, many of the weapons used still exist and other countries around the world show great interest in pursuing the potential use of nuclear weapons. Nuclear warfare would lead to global destruction and a period of darkness where there is little to no sunlight present. This is known as a “nuclear winter”. The concept of a nuclear winter is obviously frightening to society, so scientists have done much research on this global atmospheric and climate consequence by using models of volcanic eruptions (3). The research has shown that the possible scenarios resulting from nuclear warfare are very serious and widespread. In an article from Science Magazine, scientists have noted that, “Large horizontal and vertical temperature gradients caused by absorption of sunlight in smoke and dust clouds may greatly accelerate the transport of particles and radioactivity from the Northern Hemisphere to the Southern Hemisphere.” (3). In addition, scientists hypothesize global destruction caused by the nuclear blast, rapid spread of fires, and initial loss followed by increased solar ultraviolet radiation due to ozone depletion (3). Overall, the probable human exposure to cold, dark, and radioactivity is a very real situation that will threaten mankind as a result of bioaccumulation that ultimately leads to a nuclear winter (3).

3. In reading through all ten modules from this semester, it is clear that many complex interactions between humans and their environment have an impact on sustainability and biodiversity. Make a systems diagram that illustrates these relationships in regards to sustainability and biodiversity. Include at least three components, from any of the modules this semester, which flow in a logical order.

2. In regards to climate diplomacy, the system diagram that I created is an illustration of a possible solution to the numerous challenges facing collective action as it pertains to climate change. Since climate change is a global issue, political negotiations are required, including and especially international diplomatic relations. This system diagram illustrates the cause and effects of the U.S.’s private diplomatic cables on global climate negotiations. The diagram is initiated by the series of evens stemming from the observed global climate change. As a result of such climate change, monetary and political negotiations are required in order to reduce the emission of greenhouse gasses. This led to the implementation of spying and cyber warfare by the Untied States via communication cables. The communication cables released by the U.S. served to understand the overwhelming opposition from other countries in response to the controversial “Copenhagen Accord”, which the U.S. strongly supported. Ultimately, various news outlets exposed the United State’s secret, but after much controversy, negotiations were in place for a new climate treaty. Today, 116 countries have associated themselves with the accord and 140 nations represent about 75% of the countries that are involved in the United Nations Climate Change Convention. As mentioned in the article, negotiations surrounding the implementation of a climate treaty prove to be difficult in terms of compromising multiple views on the issue. In addition, a climate treaty would alter the existing global economy to a “low-carbon model” which would require billions of dollars in funding. So, although the WikiLeaks Cables released by the U.S. caused a great deal of controversy, the accord and the UN Climate Change Convention are the necessary stepping-stones required to achieve sustainability.

3. Prior to reading this article I had not heard of the WikiLeaks Cables and the surrounding controversy that they caused. I of course had heard of climate change, and considered myself to be somewhat knowledgeable on the subject, but this class has enhanced my knowledge on the issue immensely. Not only have I gained knowledge on global warming itself, but also the necessary precautionary measures that are required in order to fix the problem. Based on the content from this class, it is clear that collective action is necessary to reverse the damage that has been done. The United States may have gone about solving the issue incorrectly, but the intent behind it was not malicious in any way. However, I believe that the WikiLeaks Cables should have been made public as the corruption and spying would have only continued if they were not public. The United States went above and beyond to try to get other countries on board with their idea without taking into consideration the ability of other countries to act accordingly. Though the intent behind these cables may have been to simply “understand” what the other countries were thinking, the United States should have gone about it in a different way. Our country is seen as a leader for the most part, but this type of behavior is not something that should be admired, especially when dealing with an issue as important as global climate change. In order to reach an attainable international climate change treaty, the requirements for reducing greenhouse gas emissions must take into consideration the large number of nations around the world and the living conditions of each nation. Resources, such as fossil fuels, are readily available in some countries but not others. The standard of living and geographic surroundings of each country must be taken into consideration in order for a realistic international treaty to be implemented.

By using the Nathan World Map of Natural Hazards, I was able to identify Philadelphia’s vulnerability to natural hazards. The vulnerability to natural hazards in any area is determined by the various trends over time that result as a consequence of both natural and human systems. Philadelphia is in Zone 0 in terms of earthquake potential. Fortunately, Pennsylvania is not located near tectonic plate boundaries, so its risk for earthquakes is almost obsolete. Philadelphia falls right in between the threat for sea level rise and the threat of heavy rainfall. Philadelphia falls between zones 1 and 2, which is low, in terms of frequency and intensity of hailstorms. Philadelphia is, however, at risk of experiencing winter storms as well as tornados (zone 2). As mentioned in the module, Philadelphia does experience the realm of seasons, but it is generally a safe location in terms of vulnerability to natural hazards. The Nathan Map provides an in-depth look at a city’s vulnerability to any number of natural hazards; however, the map is outdated as it is from 2011.

On March 13^th, 2016, Emory University Hospital in Atlanta, Georgia experienced a biological hazard. The biohazard level was ranked a 4 out of 4 as viruses and bacteria lead to a fatal disease that spread to patients at the hospital. The patients that contracted the disease experienced Bolivian and Argentine hemorrhagic fevers, bird flu, Dengue hemorrhagic fever, Marburg virus, Ebola virus, hantaviruses, Lassa fever, and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever. Unfortunately, treatments and vaccines for these diseases are not available. This outbreak is suspected to have been caused by a single person infected with the Lassa Hemorrhagic Fever. Since one infected person caused the outbreak, the same thing could happen anywhere as long as the virus and bacteria are both present. A Hospital-Acquired Infection (HAI) may be spread to any susceptible patient by a number of means. Any hospital staff member can spread the infection, as well as contaminated equipment or bed linens, and especially air droplets. The CDC estimates that hospital acquired infections, from all types of bacteria, are responsible or aid in 99,000 deaths each year across the United States. The population size of Atlanta in 2013 was 447,841, which is just under a third of Philadelphia’s population in 2013, which was 1.553 million. Although the two factors have not been proven directly linked, a larger population size has a greater chance of acquiring the virus and bacteria, therefore a greater chance of the same biological hazard occurring. Different people in the city of Philadelphia will have different levels of vulnerability based on their day-to-day interactions. Those who spend more time in a hospital or clinical setting are at a greater risk of dealing with people that have a compromised immune system and are likely to spread the virus or bacteria. Human factors such as wealth and education may also affect vulnerability. In terms of wealth, living conditions and health maintenance both greatly impact the functionality of one’s immune system. In addition, education impacts vulnerability as a means of learning how to avoid such biological hazards. A literate population has most likely learned of HAI’s and the dangers associated with them, whereas a strongly illiterate population is unaware.

In October 2012, Hurricane Sandy killed 131 Americans, left upwards of 6 million without power, and resulted in about $50 billion worth of damages (1). Hurricane Sandy mainly affected coastal Jersey Shore towns, however; some New York areas experienced flooding, property damage, and power outages (1). Fortunately, the neighboring Greater Philadelphia area experienced wind, rain, and some power outages, but not nearly as much damage, flooding or death. Although the city of Philadelphia was spared in 2012, its risk is expected to grow as a result of climate change (1). With the rising sea levels each year, Philadelphia has a greater risk of experiencing harsh natural disasters such as Hurricane Sandy, but this time, it may not be so lucky.

In order to reduce the city of Philadelphia’s vulnerability to natural hazards, changes must be implemented. Without a doubt, pre-event preparations and emergency response teams must have their operations in order to run smoothly prior to the extreme weather situation. In dealing with the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, there was talk of “learning a lesson” in order to prevent this from happening again. Unfortunately though, as prevention expert Dr. Scott Knowles states, “The changes necessary to protect ourselves from the worst effects of such storms are not easy ones to make, even if we all agreed on the priorities” (1). In an effort to prevent this from happening again, city planners and disaster response agencies must get involved, especially from a civil engineering perspective. Risk management is also to be improved through increased planning, engineering and policy implementation. Undoubtedly, it will require the time and effort of many to prepare Philadelphia for the extreme weather that results as a consequence of global climate change.

Work Cited

(1) https://newsblog.drexel.edu/2013/02/20/learning-from-sandy-is-philadelphia-prepared-for-the-next-natural-disaster/

I live in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which can be characterized as an urban-downtown setting. Philadelphia is the largest city within Pennsylvania as well as the fifth most populated city in the United States. It has been estimated that there were 1,560,297 people living in the city of Philadelphia in 2014. I may be bias, but I have done much traveling in my lifetime and I believe it is one of the most fascinating urban landscapes. The city is filled with people of different race, ethnicity, careers, ages, cultures, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Philadelphia is also influenced by a variety of environmental factors. Philadelphia experiences a vast array of seasons. Philadelphia sees snow and ice in January, the most beautiful cherry blossoms in April, dense humidity in July, and falling leaves in November. The Delaware River, as well as the Schuylkill River surround the city, both originally served as boundaries between the city’s early urban street plans. Philadelphia is divided into a number of large neighborhoods – North, Northeast, Northwest, West, South, and Southwest – each surrounds the Center City neighborhood.

Curitiba, Brazil, has one of the best bus systems in the world. The bus system in Philadelphia, commonly SEPTA, is known for a wide range of reasons. The city of Curitiba has a larger population than Philadelphia, but the population sizes are comparable and Philadelphia could make use of a similar bus system in an attempt to accomplish sustainability. Although Curitiba was compared to the city of Phoenix, Philadelphia is structured more similarly to Curitiba than to Phoenix. Philadelphia is not designed for efficient automobile transportation. Although people are always driving in Philadelphia, traffic is inevitable, which is not environmentally efficient. Traffic makes for inefficient transportation, but the bus system, along with the subway system, are alternative options that provide transportation in an inexpensive, timely manner. Philadelphia has hundreds of rapid transit routes into and out of the city. With bus stations placed all over the city, this mode of transportation is even more efficient. If more people in Philadelphia made use of the bus system, the city could reach a level of sustainability similar to that of Curitiba.

The final city I will be discussing is Boston, Massachusetts. Beacon Hill is a Boston neighborhood slightly north of Boston’s central public park and directly next to the downtown region of Boston. Beacon Hill is one of many neighborhoods in Boston, just as the city of Philadelphia is made up of dozens of neighborhoods. The downtown setting of the Beacon Hill neighborhood offers many options for dining, entertainment, socializing, shopping, and working. Certain areas around Beacon Hill and other neighborhoods in the city offer the opportunity for quiet, calm walking outside of the normal hustle-and-bustle of the busy, crowded city. Philadelphia is set up in a similar sense as both cities have neighborhoods that were developed over two hundred years ago. With the change in age, transportation changed, but the streets were originally designed to be walked on. In order to create a more sustainable environment, people living in cities like Boston or Philadelphia should make use of these quiet streets to walk to their destination, while taking a peaceful “break” from the city.

1. After reading this module and thinking about possible scenarios for the learning activity, it is very clear that my food choice is influenced by social norms on an almost-daily basis. When I consider my own food intake and food choice, I would say that I eat more when those around me are eating more, or eat less when those around me are enjoying smaller portions. This social norm is also extended to the type of food as I have chosen specific meals based on what I perceived was the social norm. If I were dining at a fancier restaurant I would probably avoid any finger foods or anything messy, as I believe it to be looked down upon in that type of setting. The influence of social norms on food choices stems from my own innate, sub-conscious desire to fit in. Without even really considering it, my decisions at a restaurant are biased because I wish to associate with a particular group or gain approval. As mentioned in Module 6, socialization is a large part of enjoying food with others.

2. I tend to make my food choices based on the desire to fit in or grain approval from a particular social group. This influence on food choice is also connected to a number of societal issues. A controversial societal issue, as related to food, is animal food products. People consume animal foods for any number of reasons, be it nutrition or just the taste. The societal issues associated with animal foods are connected to collective action problems when a large number of animals are hunted for food. Limiting the amount of animal food in our diet has proven to be nutritious, which could lead to both individual and environmental benefits if we cut back on our consumption. Ultimately, this societal issue brings up an ethical issue in terms of food policy. Sustainability is at risk when a large number of animals from a particular species are hunted and eventually become endangered. Given this connection, the social norm should be to cut back, not cut out entirely, on consumption of animal foods. By working together, sustainability can be achieved while still enjoying our favorite foods.

This particular case study, from the source All Africa, is in regards to the starvation and malnutrition facing the people of Ethiopia (http://allafrica.com/stories/201602191414.html). Nearly 10 million people in Ethiopia are affected by hunger and Ethiopian authorities have complained of the difficulty faced in terms of ability to provide, what little food there is, to the needy because of the bustling activity in the seaport. In an attempt to fix this problem of access, the ships are required to discharge their goods more efficiently so that trucks and trains may transport their goods. The government has made food aid and fertilizers a top priority by setting aside a single dock at the seaport. The World Food Program (WFP) has delivered relief food rations to nearly 7.6 million people. Food rations are an effort to save and sustain as many lives as possible during this crisis where people have nothing else to live on. The WFP is also purchasing additional food for rationing from local farmers and traders around the region that may have a surplus. This case study relates to sustainable development and the ways in which it differs between developed, developing, and underdeveloped countries.

I used Sage Journals as the source for further information regarding starvation in regions across Asia (http://sas.sagepub.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/content/14/1/129.full.pdf+html). In South Asia, improvements in per capita food availability along with women’s education provide the most optimistic outcomes for the future reduction in the prevalence of child malnutrition. An improved status for women is particularly prioritized as well as improvements in national income growth and democratic development. The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG) has set forth aspirations in hopes of eventually eradicating this problem, but the goals will only be achieved if the international community acts now, along with political will. UNICEF strongly enforces raising nutritional issues on government agendas, using success stories such as China’s as models, and placing the primary focus on pregnant women and children under the age of two. Finally, the World Bank report suggests a number of simple solutions for improving children’s diets, such as the use of fortified foods and Vitamin A. Each of these organizations (MDG, UNICEF, and World Bank) agrees that the nutrition of children must be made a priority amongst national policies and budgets.

I currently live in State College, Pennsylvania, which is surrounded by farmland and mountains. This agricultural setting allows for sustainable development since crops are readily available. Sustainable development meets the needs of the present population and environment, without compromising the ability of prosperity to meet and maintain their own needs. People in developed countries usually live to an older age, more desirable living situation, as well as more career opportunities. Though the most common standard for comparing development is through gross domestic product (GDP), another way is based on the comparison of various health statistics between developed, developing, as well as underdeveloped countries. Generally, money and health are directly correlated, which is evident when comparing development between State College and Ethiopia or South Asia. The more developed area, State College, does not have as large a problem with hunger as underdeveloped countries. Agriculture in an area is also important for availability of food and supplies for maintenance of a healthy and sustainable lifestyle. The increase in food and supplies in State College, as compared to Ethiopia and South Asia, allows for growth of a larger population to be adequately maintained, as well as the availability of society to focus on tasks other than producing food.

A.  I am from a small town called Horsham, which is right outside of Philadelphia in Montgomery County. In order to gather information on the water supply chain in my area, I was able to contact the local municipal water company through their website. The majority of the water supplying the town of Horsham’s supply chain comes from groundwater sources, such as wells. A small percentage of this water supply comes from surface water. The wells supplying most of the water system have been conveniently located throughout the Horsham Township. Some of these wells also form interconnections with other utilities such as Aqua’s Main System and North Wales Water Authority. The largest well in Horsham is located just south of a main road and this well alone produces approximately 13% of the total average daily demand of Horsham Township. Under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), the Horsham Water and Sewer Authority actively monitors the quality of the water from each of the groundwater wells that is used to supply many of the households in this community. This past year, Horsham Township released the annual Consumer Confidence Report of all of the Authority’s in-service wells. This report illustrated that all of the service wells produced water into the system that meets the criteria for primary drinking water standards.

B.

Water Usage for Sunday, February 7, 2016

TOTAL WATER USAGE for February 7th, 2016: 60.27 gallons

C. If I were to live in an area where water was not as plentiful as it is during the present time, it would be very difficult to prioritize where I would need to ration my water supply. In order to understand this adverse situation, I made it a point to only use two gallons of water for an entire day. Through this experiment, I have learned that if I only had two gallons of water for one day, there is one main thing I would prioritize it for each day. I would need to drink at least half a gallon of water per day. It would be difficult to get by without water while cooking, but it is possible. Many processed carbohydrates, such as frozen meals, do not require any added water. Water is also necessary for bathing, but once again, if the water supply was this low, then bathing would not occur everyday. It was also difficult to keep track of water when using the bathroom and washing hands. Using the bathroom is definitely a priority, but the number of flushes can be controlled. It is obviously important to maintain hygiene, so washing hands is necessary, but it must be efficient. This also includes turning the water off while brushing teeth or in between washing dishes. The experiment succeeded until late in the evening when I became very thirsty. Given my daily water usage from part B, I would have a lot of work to do to get by on just two gallons per day. Geography matters to water usage because it determines not only the quality of the water, but also the quantity. A large amount of clean water is ideal, but there are many places where this does not occur. Water is essential to maintaining a healthy, hygienic, and clean lifestyle. Geography is a main determinant of water quality and should be considered a top priority.

Question #1.

In terms of the importance of virtue ethics as opposed to action ethics, the answer lies within the perception of what should be and what should be done. Both of these types of ethics deal with subjective views on right and wrong, good and bad, and should versus should not. Ultimately, this distinction entails the difference between simply stating one’s beliefs (virtue ethics) and taking the actions necessary to make a change for those beliefs (action ethics). As far as environmental ethics are concerned, both of these concepts can be extended to sustainability as well as human-environment interactions. In relation to environmental ethics, I believe that it is more important to perform good acts; therefore, action ethics are far more influential than virtue ethics in regards to creating a sustainable environment by way of human-environment interactions. I maintain this opinion because it takes more than just a belief of how the environment should be, but rather a unified approach to what should be done to maintain a sustainable environment. Action ethics relate both sustainability and democracy because the voice of a democracy creates a movement towards a sustainable environment for present and future generations. I believe that this distinction holds true for a vast majority of scenarios due to the fact that actions speak louder than words. This concept is important in terms of personal, professional and romantic relationships. This approach is also apparent as we begin to select possible presidential candidates and a leader must not only want change, but also take actions necessary to make that change.

Question #2.

In regards to action ethics, both the ends and the means must be considered in order to validate a particular action. Ultimately, though, one must rationalize the other. I believe that this question is very circumstantial and comes down to priorities, depending on the particular action. In terms of sustainability and human-environment interaction, sometimes-particular actions do have to be taken in order to provide food, shelter, and other basic necessities. In this case-scenario, I believe that the ends did justify the means. I also believe the ends justify the means if it involves a decision of life and death. If cutting down trees will prevent forest fires, and in turn save more lives, I would warrant that the outcome overrides the process. However, on the contrary, I do not believe that the ends justify the means when ecosystems are ruined for the purpose of building shopping malls, business complexes, restaurants, etc. This opinion is altered outside of the topic of human-environmental actions as well. For instance, the cost to attend a graduate school, such as law school, medical school, or dental school, is increasing every year and it becomes difficult to justify spending that much money. I believe that the cost of such a program can justify the means if the net financial gains after graduation surpass the debt and student loans.

Question #3.

Decision-making is particularly important when dealing with ethics as it involves both the process as well as the outcome. Both the process and the outcome relate to one’s own core values, goals, and opinions. Decisions are made when we think ethically or make observations about certain situations and compare these observations to our own ideals. The decision making process lies within our own internal intuitions which embody our personal views on right and wrong, good and bad, should and should not. I believe the process by which decisions are made matters more than the outcomes of these decisions, therefore; procedural justice takes priority over distributive justice. I believe that procedural justice is more significant as the emphasis on how decisions are made leads to an explanation for why decisions are made. Procedural justice is unique to each and every individual as it combines each of our opinions, views, and thoughts. The process behind decision-making explains the consequences, but the consequences do not always explain the process, and so that is why I believe that procedural justice matters more than distributive justice. Procedural justice includes several aspects of democracy, which is especially important when environmental change is at stake. Obviously, every individual’s plan of action cannot be considered, but within a democracy we are able to speak up with our ideas and vote on those ideas. I think that the significance of procedural justice is apparent in a wide variety of scenarios, as it is the closest way to attempt to include any number of ideas and views in implementing change.

The main focus of my diagram was to illustrate the importance of the relationship between the social system and the ecosystem, as together they can positively or negatively affect several aspects of life. For example, the ecosystem was negatively affected by the use of firewood as it emits smoke into the air. At the same time, people were contracting chest infections as well as irritation of the eyes due to that same smoke emission. My biogas diagram clearly indicates that an initial ecosystem complication can lead to widespread complications within the social system as well. Such negative affects are shown with dashed red lines in the biogas diagram. Alternatively, once the biogas wells were implemented, the ecosystem benefited as there was in increase in crop yield and irrigation for farming. The biogas wells also made use of animal waste as fuel, leading to a cleaner ecosystem, which in turn lead to safer and more efficient working conditions. The improved working conditions lead to an enhancement in public health status. This type of “win-win” scenario is also depicted in my biogas diagram with solid purple arrows. Overall, the core idea behind my diagram is a representation of feedback mechanisms. There are both positive feedback loops (solid purple) and negative feedback loops (dashed red) interacting with each other at all levels of the ecosystem and social system. With that in mind, a positive action within a social system can therefore lead to a beneficial change within the ecosystem. This is especially important as our ecosystems have been overwhelmed with negative changes due to global warming.

My diagram is similar to Figure 1.5 in the Marten reading as we both made use of solid lines and dashed lines to represent various feedback mechanisms. Both of our diagrams illustrate the concept of cause and effect between social systems and ecosystems. Our diagrams differ based on the broadness of the category. My diagram focuses mainly on the direct effects of firewood on health and lifestyle, whereas the Marten diagram covers a vast range of effectors such as the overall population, especially children, to technological aspects. These differences can be attributed to the level of detail each diagram possesses as well as which end of the spectrum each is focused on. The major emphasis in my biogas diagram is the chain of events leading to the implementation of the biogas well. The diagram from the Marten reading is focused on the effects after the biofuel generator is introduced to the village. Through comparison of both diagrams, it is clear that social systems and ecosystems depend on each other and a change in one leads to a change in the other, whether that change be positive or negative.